Humanitas Global Development Blog

The Convergence of Development and Biodiversity Conservation

By Savanna Henderson, Humanitas Global

In the conclusion of this two-part blog I will examine examples of responses to development and biodiversity conservation.

Current environmental trends showcase the need for immediate action to reverse degradation and damage while simultaneously identifying development solutions that protect the environment. While there is a universal need for sustainable responses to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), there is no silver bullet solution. Though environmental conservation and sustainability should be inherent in every response to the SDGs, solutions to poverty in a biodiversity hotspot require a much different response than solutions to poverty in an urban environment. Sustainable development requires solutions tailored to local development needs, environment, threats, and existing policies, guidelines, and laws. Below are examples of environmental conservation efforts that complement sustainable development.

Wildlife Corridors

Wildlife corridors are one solution to the impacts of development and urbanization on habitat fragmentation. Basically, a wildlife corridor provides a path of native vegetation between two or more habitats to allow for wildlife to safely travel between the habitats. This is important for migratory animal species, colonization, genetic diversity conservation, and the functioning of ecosystem services. Wildlife corridors can vary in size as seen in the following examples.

Homeowners 75 miles from London have created something of a mini corridor for hedgehogs by cutting holes in the base of their yard fences. Urban and suburban development has forced hedgehogs into human territory where fences prevent travel for food, mating and survival. Holes in the fences allow hedgehogs to carry on with their behaviors with as little disruption as possible.

Expansion of the two-lane Trans-Canada Highway running through the Banff National Park in Alberta, Canada prompted implementation of corridors and safety mechanisms to protect humans, wildlife, and the Park ecosystem. Today, there are six overpasses, 38 underpasses and fencing along the highway that allows grizzly and black bears, wolves, coyotes, cougar, moose, elk, deer, and wolverine to cross safely. A study of bears using the corridor has revealed that they are utilizing the corridor which may restore the previously isolated gene flow between bear populations.  

Flyways are pathways used by migratory birds and insects. Development can destroy nesting grounds, stopover sites for food and rest, and wintering grounds used by bird populations. Protecting and creating habitat along known flyways is crucial to protecting migratory bird species. In Oslo, construction of a ‘bee highway’ aims to give insects, specifically endangered pollinators, food and shelter throughout the city.  

Protected Areas

As the name indicates, protected areas safeguard habitats and ecosystems from degradation and fragmentation.  As defined by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), these areas are dedicated to the preservation of biological diversity, and natural and cultural resources. They are managed by legal or similarly effective means to ensure conservation. Protected areas are categorized into six types including:

• Nature reserves or wilderness areas;
• National parks;
• Natural monuments;
• Habitat/species management areas;
• Protected landscape/seascapes and
• Managed resource protected areas

Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) are protected areas of habitat set aside for conservation. Often, they are utilized for tourism activities (hunting, photograph, camping, etc.,) to benefit the local community or continued preservation of the park. In Papua New Guinea, WMAs are protected areas of land and water under the Fauna Protection and Control Act. Customary landowners own and manage the land to protect wildlife and its habitat, which can provide a form of income, and support culturally significant and traditional forms of natural resource use.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) focus on oceans and can be practiced in numerous ways. MPAs may be developed and operated by the private sector or a local community, collaborative management systems, government agencies or have international designations.  The Quirimbas National Park in Mozambique includes woodlands, coastal forests, granite inselbergs, mangrove forests, coral reefs and sand flats. Six fish sanctuaries (no-take areas) in the park prohibit all types of fishing, with the protected area growing in size annually. As the fish are protected, the stocks are rehabilitated and eventually spread to unprotected areas, benefitting resident fisherman.

The Way Forward

The examples above are just a few of the many solutions to protecting land and marine habitats and resources with the well-being of society in mind. Of course, there are limitations to the success of these examples. While wildlife corridors show promise in providing safe passage between fragmented habitats, continued habitat loss will make corridors inconsequential.  Animals like the North American pronghorn that travel 150 miles each way during migration, make corridors an unviable solution. Then there are animals such as the endangered Asian elephant (a keystone species). Habitat fragmentation has eliminated or forced traditional migration routes into human-occupied areas leading to conflict and death to both humans and elephants. Providing a corridor to accommodate the size and numbers of elephants using traditional migration routes would require conversion of human habitat and resettlement of often already impoverished people.  

Protected areas, once identified and implemented, provide a safe haven for biodiversity. Unfortunately, animals don’t recognize the commonly invisible barriers of a protected area, and may travel outside the boundaries. Two preserves in India provide protected habitat for roughly 6,300 elephants.  But the 2,200 acres connecting the preserves, frequented by the elephants, are not protected. Several villages in this area agreed to resettle elsewhere, but continued population growth threatens to overtake such vulnerable habitat. In Tanzania, the African Wildlife Foundation resolved such a case by establishing a WMA in an area utilized by wildlife between two national parks

It will take efforts like those noted above, and much more, to achieve the Global Goals and create an enabling and productive environment for future populations.  More research and related endeavors are critical to understanding the trade-offs between development and preservation of biodiversity and to identify steps to ensure that development and biodiversity conservation become convergent goals.  

The Contradictions of Human Development and Habitat Loss

By Savanna Henderson, Humanitas Global

In the first half of this two-part blog I will explore the effect of human development on habitat loss and vice versa.

Biodiversity, the variation of life in all forms ranging from genes, to species, to communities, to whole ecosystems, is the backbone of human existence. The provision of breathable air, clean water, medicine, fiber and fuel sources, food, buffers to natural disasters, an equitable climate and aesthetic and spiritual experiences constitute the basis of human well-being.

Within the diversity of ecosystems, any community of living organisms interacting with nonliving elements, are habitats comprised of numerous plant and animal species. These habitats are crucial to genetic, species and community diversity and the supply and capacity of ecosystem services. Wetlands, for example, filter pollutants from water, minimize flood and storm impacts, and provide a home to many plant and animal, including migratory species. A study of a common wetland plant revealed genetically distinct populations within all six surveyed wetlands, demonstrating the value in protecting habitats and ecosystems for species and ecosystem service resilience.

From Greeniacs

Habitat loss, stemming from destruction, fragmentation or degradation, threatens these sanctuaries of diversity and is often the result of human activities. Loss in habitat size, increased isolation of habitats from one another, and increases in negative edge (where one habitat begins and another ends) effects, characterize fragmentation. These elements cause changes to the delicate biological and physical properties of habitats, decrease genetic diversity, introduce pathogens and invasive species, and lead to human-wildlife conflict. A recent study determined that habitat fragmentation reduces biodiversity by 13 to 75 percent and diminishes irreplaceable ecosystem services.  Urban, industrial and agricultural development can lead to habitat fragmentation through deforestation, draining and filling in of wetlands, construction of dams and roads, pollution and more.

Despite advances in providing enough nutritious food, alleviating poverty, identifying and scaling-up the use of clean energy, and improving human health and well-being, it has come at the cost of the environment and biodiversity. Over the last half century, 17 percent of the Amazon rain forest has been lost to human activity such as farming and ranching. Agricultural development and unsustainable logging are the main causes of deforestation. Currently, these threats lead to forest losses equivalent to 48 football fields a minute, further fragmenting and eliminating habitats. Of the remaining forests, 70 percent are within one kilometer of the forest’s edge, vulnerable to edge effects such as changes in moisture, temperature, species composition, predation, and introduction of invasive species and pathogens.

Habitats that provide carbon storage, buffers to natural disasters, biological control, and homes to pollinating insects, birds and bats, have been cleared and fragmented by networks of roads leading to continuously growing urban centers that allow for market access, economic development, and improved access to health services and education. Dams that provide irrigation water, hydropower, a source of drinking water, flood control and make inland navigation possible also cut off fish migration routes, trap nutrient-rich sediment from downstream habitats, host invasive species and cause detrimental changes to the biological, chemical and physical properties of aquatic environments including oceans.

While conservation of biodiversity is included in Sustainable Development Goal’s 14: Life below Water and 15: Life on Land, achievement of many of the other goals is hinged on use of environmental resources. Despite recognition of this in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, it is important to note that land and aquatic environments are non-renewable and our population is projected to expand to 8.5 billion by 2030, presenting a challenging contradiction to reach development goals. Today is Earth Overshoot Day, punctuating the moment humanity has consumed all the resources the Earth is capable of regenerating within the year. This ‘event’ arrives earlier and earlier every year. With this in mind, addressing the past and current failures (think industrial agriculture) and shortcomings (think malnutrition and hunger) while striving to accomplish the SDGs, especially the environmental ones, will need creative and innovative solutions from multisectoral collaboration.

Women and Forests: Improving Equitable Opportunities and Participation for Sustainable Development

By Savanna Henderson, Humanitas Global

Monday, March 21^st was the International Day of Forests, a global celebration of the myriad ways forests contribute to human well-being and development. Forests are a source of energy, medicine, fiber, building materials, food, and are a source of biodiversity, carbon sequestration and a crucial piece of the water cycle. Nearly 1.2 billion people rely on forest resources for their livelihood but what about women? The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) State of the World’s Forests report found that only 24 percent of the world’s women are employed in the forest sector. The World Bank has documented that many women are engaged in the formal forestry industry but often in menial (and sometimes dangerous) jobs in sawmills or plantation nurseries.  Despite these findings, in most developing countries, women’s role in the forestry sector is often relegated to collection of materials, like fuel wood, food for the family and fodder for livestock, rather than any type of income generating activities. For instance, the State of the World’s Forests found that women collect 60 percent of wood for fuel globally. While men also collect wood for fuel, they do so to sell while women collect wood for subsistence uses.

Ollivier Girard/CIFOR via Flickr

 Many countries have policies and programs in place to sustainably manage and utilize natural resources and ecosystems while goal 15 of the SDGs specifically highlights the need for sustainable use and management of forests as a component of development. A key message of the SDG’s is to leave no one behind so it is imperative that any policies, programs or actions focused on forests and forest resources be mindful of women, create equitable opportunities that support economic empowerment, growth and sustainable development.  Though they are often viewed as key members of the poorest and marginalized groups, frequently cited as beneficiaries in policies and programs, women are not mainstreamed into the forest sector.

As an example of unequal opportunities in the forest sector, a study performed by Women Organizing for Change in Agriculture and Natural Resource Management (WOCAN)  found that women are not key stakeholders or beneficiaries of Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) program because of their invisibility in the forest sector. While it varies country to country, forestry is often viewed as a more masculine territory, which often prevents women from being recognized or given opportunities to be participants.

Women in Forestry

There are some exceptions where women are given the opportunity to work in forestry and even seek out more “dangerous” professions. In Gujarat, the government created a 33 percent quota for female employees in the forest department. Called “forest guards”, these women are employed in the Gir National Park, the only remaining habitat for Asiatic Lions. The majority of the women work in the forests, monitoring, observing, protecting and even rescuing the native lions and leopards that call the forests home.

The Lion Queens of Gir National Park

The World Agroforestry Centre published a report titled, “Gender and Agroforestry in Africa: Are Women Participating?” and found women in Africa are less involved in agroforestry than men. One reason is that women’s rights to tree products are limited to those with little or no value while men take ownership of valuable products. Despite that, women were found to be producing indigenous fruits, vegetables, fodder and mulch that they could sell. In addition to providing a small source of income, production of fodder and mulch at home allowed women more time to invest in other productive activities such as replenishing soil fertility.

ICRAF. Fertilizer trees in Malawi raise and stabilize maize yields.

The government of Nepal has actually created a legal framework to promote equal opportunities and women’s participation in the forestry sector. Roughly 35 percent of the population is involved in community forestry programs (CFUGs). While only a small percentage (5 percent) are solely women operated, there is “increasing anecdotal evidence that women-only CFUGs have contributed to improvements in forest cover and maintained better transparency, communication and accountability in financial management in governance.”

As we move past the International Day of Forests, it’s essential that we keep women’s role and participation in the forestry sector top of mind. It’s been demonstrated that focusing and investing in women and girls can have a multiplier effect on poverty. Their involvement in the formal or informal forestry sector will not only have an impact on poverty but also on environmental sustainability and conservation. But cultural, sociological, economic and political factors can leave women disadvantaged and without opportunities or adequate support to enter the forestry sector even where forest or environmental policies or programs exist. There needs to be a focus on specific objectives that will increase, strengthen and support women’s participation in forestry rather than create empty opportunities

World Wildlife Day: is one day enough for celebration?

By Tatiana LeGrand, Humanitas Global

March 3^rd is World Wildlife Day. Established three years ago, this year the highlight is on our involvement clearly demonstrated in theme “The future of wildlife is in our hands”. It is indeed about a collective effort. It isn’t only governments, enforcement officers, and park rangers that need to scale up efforts to protect wildlife. It also demands citizen’s involvement. So, let’s celebrate and raise awareness about the importance of the world’s wildlife!

Wildlife’s countless values

Being able to watch wildlife in its natural habitat is one of those invaluable experiences that shape our perception of nature. We don’t know and probably will never be fully aware of the role that wild species play in providing important ecosystem services. Recognizing the dimensions of value wildlife and natural environments represent, natural parks, biosphere reserves and other protected areas have been created to safeguard them. But we still live in a world where human actions infringe upon and continue to threaten wildlife and their environments. Consider this evidence of human impact on wildlife: according to the Living Planet report by the World Wildlife Fund, population sizes of vertebrate species – mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish—have declined by 52 percent over the last 40 years! New research evidence shows that East and West Africa could lose up to 50% their lions by 2035.

A multitude of human-induced challenges

As alarming as it might sound, endangering or causing the extinction of wildlife species can provide a paycheck. Think illegally imported ivory jewelry and other animal parts used for medicinal purposes, otherwise known as wildlife smuggling. According to the Brazilian Institute of Environment and Renewable Natural Resources, this industry is worth up to $2 billion a year.  But we can still act: report such sales if observed or suspected and refrain from buying such products, eliminating demand. Ivory trade has caused the endangerment of elephants and while some success has been reached though abandoning the use of ivory for piano keys, for instance, it’s still a long road to reducing the number of animals killed. A recent study suggested that 75% of elephant populations in Africa are shrinking due to poaching. Bushmeat hunting is also still driving wildlife decline (including fish supplies), in West Africa for instance, and in areas where people depend on local wildlife for food security. In response, scientists are emphasizing the urgent need for developing protein alternatives to bushmeat and improving fisheries management. There are also individuals who trophy hunt, which can negatively impact species survival. Everyone knows the story of Cecil the lion! 

Several other human-induced issues emerged rather recently and include, for instance, massive development projects that aim at enlarging road networks in Africa that will likely diminish the pristine wilderness areas and affect migration routes used by wildlife. Or antimicrobial resistance found in wildlife species. And of course, let’s not forget about pollution, or exploitation of natural resources that cause habitat loss for many wild species. All that is being magnified by climate change making wildlife conservation a real challenge.

Conservation as a process

Wildlife conservation is a tricky task. It is not only about the protection of wild plant and animal species but also their habitats. It is a process of improving awareness today for future generations to enjoy, respect and acknowledge the significant role provided by the wildlife we know. While World Wildlife Day is a day to celebrate and a call to action, wildlife conservation and attention to the issues shouldn’t be confined to a single day.

The importance of biodiversity is included in several of the Sustainable Development Goals that were adopted in 2015. Such as Goal 15, which is dedicated to land biodiversity and emphasizes the importance of protection, restoration and promotion of the sustainable use of ecosystems and halting biodiversity loss.

So, let’s celebrate and raise the awareness of the world’s wildlife and let it not fade away beyond just one day.

Room and Need for Action

There is a lot to be done… From cooperation among farmers and conservation specialists on creating wildlife corridors and protecting regions of rich biodiversity, like in the Congo Basin where 39 percent of the region is threatened by severe hunting pressure.

Last but not least, let’s go back to public involvement in the wildlife conservation dialogue. However, is that a dialogue? Or is raising awareness a one-sided issue that doesn’t receive a response most of the time? There should be a focus on finding ways to contribute to wildlife conservation in our day-to-day lives, financially support sustainable management, and improve governance of natural resources.

And what we can do in the meantime, is at least start small! Leave some fallen leaves in the garden to create a habitat for lizards and other native creatures. In the end, some of them are less known and beautiful than others (when’s the last time you saw a Chinese Giant Salamander stuffed animal?), but they still deserve and require protection. But, ultimately, acting and raising awareness should also be about sharing what you know about and your love of wildlife. After all, their future is in our hands!

The Case for Commodifying Nature: Risks, Rewards and Sustainability.

By Savanna Henderson, Humanitas Global 

When attempting to compromise between global priorities like slowing the loss of nature and biodiversity and addressing challenges like fostering the development of human populations while reducing poverty and malnourishment, the strategy of using pro-poor conservation can be alluring. Often, methods of addressing these issues and priorities are based upon a commodification of nature that will contribute to providing valued environmental and socioeconomic benefits to all parties involved (including the global community).  While putting a dollar figure on nature would seem to support an increased valuing of and conservation of the natural world, it can present complications that actually serve to work against the protection of the environment.

An example of one of those complications lies with ecotourism. Ecotourism is a form of tourism channeled specifically towards natural environments with an emphasis on environmental sustainability -- often supporting conservation efforts and local economic and human development. The Tanzanian government created Wildlife Management Areas (WMA) in 1998 for conservation purposes. Included in the creation of the WMAs  was a legal mechanism that allowed rural communities and private land holders to manage wildlife on the WMAs for their own economic benefit.  Wildlife tourism became a source of revenue --which supported conservation of the animals and their habitats -- within the WMAs that endorsed wildlife as a cash asset. In an attempt to increase the revenue derived from ecotourism within the WMAs, some participating communities began developing additional and more elaborate tourism camps with one even discussing construction of an airport to support more tourism. While the local’s interests and intentions started with conservation, development actions like these reflect a quantifiable and detrimental shift away from conservation and towards capital accumulation.

However, not all ecotourism is detrimental to conservation. There are examples of ecotourism benefiting both the local people and the environment. The difficulty lies in maintaining the balance between authentic conservation and income opportunities that support human development. Idealy, the value of nature would be derived from nature itself, with all its variety and provisions, rather than from specific aspects of it which are easily monetizable in the short term.

Recently, a paper (summarized here) was published exhibiting a newly developed formula for computing the price of nature or, natural capital.  The beauty of this formula is that it will allow for policymakers to compare the value of natural capital against the value of traditional forms of capital and therefore make more supportive policies for nature. It has long been a struggle to compare the value of nature, which include ecosystem services provided such as pollination, water filtration or carbon sequestration, because it varies widely across the globe and can be utilized in different ways that impact its value. For instance, soil provides a variety of ecosystem services that extend beyond the simple production of food. Soil acts as a storehouse for carbon, provides flood control, and helps in recycling both water and waste. Putting a price on just a single service doesn't adequately represent the capital soil embodies. By acknowledging that soil, perhaps the most easily ignored aspect of the natural world, is valuable natural capital, more sustainable use policies can be put in place.

Ultimately, this formula is part of a holistic framework that will allow for policy makers to make the most sustainable decisions about conservation. While sustainability is well understood and defined, it becomes difficult to pinpoint when it interacts with interrelated disciplines. It becomes nearly impossible then, to measure sustainability when there isn’t a universal commonality to use for appraisal. Tools such as the formula mentioned above show extreme potential for actually measuring sustainability through commodifying nature and therefore, have the potential to lead to improved environmental conservation and hopefully to improvements in human development.